Fault-controlled springs: A review

Springs sustain groundwater-dependent ecosystems and provide freshwater for human use. often occur because faults modify groundwater flow pathways leading to discharge from aquifers with sufficiently high pressure. This study reviews the key characteristics physical processes, field investigation techniques, modelling approaches management strategies fault-controlled spring systems. Field techniques suitable quantifying fault are restricted by values of ecosystems, requiring mainly non-invasive techniques. Numerical models systems can be divided into local-scale, process-based that allow damage zone core distinguished, regional-scale usually adopt highly simplified representations both spring. Water resources relating involves ad hoc applications trigger levels, even though more sophisticated available. Major gaps in understanding create substantial risks degradation activities, arising limited data process understanding, models. Thus, further studies needed improve hydrogeological including through detailed studies, physics-based modelling, effects withdrawals on discharge.